By Muhammad Umar Siddiqi
1. Introduction
The enigmatic figure of Zulqarnain ( ذُو ٱلْقَرْنَيْنِ ), mentioned in the Quran’s Surah Al-Kahf (18:83–98), has sparked debate for centuries. Described as a divinely guided ruler who journeyed to the edges of the known world and built a barrier against the chaotic forces of Gog and Magog (Ya’juj wa Ma’juj), Zulqarnain’s identity remains contested. Early Islamic scholars, influenced by Greco-Roman traditions, often linked him to Alexander the Great. However, modern historians increasingly argue for Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as a more plausible candidate.
This article synthesizes Quranic exegesis, historical records, archaeological evidence, and cross-cultural textual analysis to evaluate Cyrus’s candidacy. It critiques the Alexander hypothesis, explores the symbolic and literal interpretations of the “ironcopper barrier,” and contextualizes Gog and Magog within Near Eastern apocalyptic traditions. By bridging theology and historiography, this study aims to resolve one of Islamic history’s enduring mysteries.
2. Quranic Description of Zulqarnain
The Quran’s account of Zulqarnain is rich in allegory and historical allusion:
2.1 The Three Journeys:
- Western Expedition: Zulqarnain travels to where the sun “sets in a murky spring” (18:86), interpreted as the Black Sea coast or Anatolia. The “murky spring” may symbolize the Mediterranean’s western horizon or geothermal springs in Lydia, a region conquered by Cyrus.
- Eastern Expedition: He reaches a land where the sun rises on a people “with no shelter from it” (18:90), likely the arid steppes of Central Asia or the salt plains of Bactria (modern Afghanistan), both under Persian control.
- Northern Expedition: In a mountain pass, he builds a fortified barrier of iron and copper to contain Gog and Magog (18:93–98), nomadic tribes threatening settled civilizations.
2.2 Key Traits:
- Monotheism and Justice: Zulqarnain attributes his power to God (18:84–85) and refuses tribute from the oppressed, instead building a protective barrier.
- Engineering Prowess: The construction of the barrier—using iron plates sealed with molten copper—reflects advanced metallurgical knowledge, consistent with Persian engineering.
3. Cyrus the Great: A Plausible Candidate
3.1 Geopolitical and Historical Alignment
- Empire Spanning East and West: Cyrus’s Achaemenid Empire (550–530 BCE) stretched from the Aegean Sea to the Indus Valley, matching the Quran’s “two horizons” (east and west). His conquest of Lydia (547 BCE) and campaigns in Bactria align with Zulqarnain’s journeys.
- Northern Frontiers: Persian records document conflicts with Scythian and Massagetae tribes north of the Caucasus, whom later Jewish and Islamic texts associated with Gog and Magog.
3.2 Religious Tolerance and the Cyrus Cylinder
- Restoration of Subjugated Peoples: The Cyrus Cylinder (539 BCE), often called the “first charter of human rights,” records Cyrus’s policy of repatriating displaced communities, including Jews exiled in Babylon. This aligns with Zulqarnain’s Quranic role as a protector of the vulnerable.
- Jewish Reverence: The Hebrew Bible hails Cyrus as mashiach (“anointed one”) for authorizing the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s Temple (Isaiah 45:1–3, Ezra 1:1–4). This reverence likely influenced the Jewish scholars of Medina to question Muhammad about Zulqarnain.
3.3 Persian Infrastructure and Defence Systems
- The Wall of Gorgan: This 195-km-long mudbrick barrier in northeastern Iran, built during the Sassanian era but possibly expanded from Achaemenid foundations, guarded against steppe nomads. Though not iron-clad, its scale mirrors the Quranic narrative.
- Derbent Pass (Caucasus): Known as the “Caspian Gates,” this strategic mountain pass featured Persian-era fortifications to block northern invasions.
4. Alexander the Great: A Flawed Hypothesis
4.1 Origins of the Alexander Link
The association of Alexander with Zulqarnain stems from later legends, notably the Alexander Romance (3rd century CE), which reimagined him as a monotheistic hero battling barbaric tribes. Medieval Islamic scholars, influenced by Syriac Christian adaptations of this text, retroactively cast Alexander as a Quranic figure. Hellenistic coins depicting Alexander with ram’s horns (symbolizing Zeus-Ammon) further reinforced the “two-horned” epithet (Dhu al-Qarnayn).
4.2 Contradictions with the Quranic Narrative
- Polytheism vs. Monotheism: Alexander promoted his divine lineage to Zeus, clashing with Zulqarnain’s Quranic portrayal as a God-fearing ruler.
- Destructive Campaigns: Alexander’s sack of Persepolis (330 BCE) and suppression of rebellions contrast sharply with Zulqarnain’s emphasis on justice and protection of the vulnerable.
- No Defensive Barriers: Alexander’s empire focused on conquest, not fortifying borders against nomadic incursions.
4.3 Chronological and Biblical Disconnect
A decisive argument against Alexander lies in the Bible’s timeline of Gog and Magog:
- Ezekiel’s Prophecy (6th century BCE): The Book of Ezekiel identifies Gog as a ruler from Magog, a northern nation threatening Israel (Ezekiel 38–39). This predates Alexander’s lifetime by over 200 years, anchoring Gog and Magog in the era of Cyrus the Great.
- Genesis 10:2: Magog is listed as a descendant of Japheth, associated with Scythian tribes north of the Black Sea—precisely the peoples Cyrus confronted in his campaigns.
- Quranic Alignment: The Quran’s Gog and Magog narrative reflects this older, biblically rooted tradition, not the Hellenistic-era legends about Alexander. By Muhammad’s time, Jewish and Christian communities in Arabia would have recognized Gog and Magog as entities tied to Cyrus’s historical context, not Alexander’s.
4.4 Alexander’s Irrelevance to Northern Nomadic Threats
Alexander’s campaigns targeted urbanized empires (Persia, Egypt, India), not the decentralized steppe tribes described in Ezekiel or the Quran. His death in 323 BCE marked the collapse of his empire, which fractured into warring successor states—none of which prioritized defending against northern nomads. The Wall of Gorgan and Derbent Pass, often linked to Zulqarnain’s barrier, were Persian (not Macedonian) projects, constructed or expanded centuries after Alexander’s death.
5. The Iron-Copper Barrier: Symbolism vs. Archaeology
5.1 Quranic Description and Technical Feasibility
- The barrier’s design—iron plates fused with molten copper—suggests corrosion-resistant metalworking, a technique known to Persian engineers. Such a structure would resist both physical breaches and weathering.
5.2 Archaeological and Historical Evidence
- The Great Wall of Gorgan: Radiocarbon dating places its construction in the 5th–7th centuries CE (Sassanian era), but its foundations may derive from Achaemenid precursors. Excavations reveal kilns for brick production but no iron-copper components.
- Ottoman Expeditions: 18th-century accounts claim Sultan Abdul Hamid I sent envoys to the Caucasus, where they found metal fragments near Daryal Gorge. However, no Ottoman archives or physical evidence corroborate this.
5.3 Theological and Literary Interpretations
- Metaphor for Divine Justice: The barrier could symbolize Cyrus’s role as a restrainer of chaos, echoing the *Farr-e Shahi* (divine glory) concept in Persian kingship.
- Eschatological Symbolism: In Jewish and Christian traditions, Gog and Magog represent apocalyptic forces (Ezekiel 38–39, Revelation 20:7–10). The Quran’s warning of the barrier’s eventual collapse (18:98) parallels these themes.
6. Theological and Cross-Cultural Context
6.1 Cyrus in Abrahamic Traditions
- Judaism: Cyrus’s Edict of Restoration (538 BCE) is celebrated in Passover traditions. The Talmud equates him with the Messiah’s forerunner.
- Christianity: Medieval European writers, such as Christopher Columbus, invoked Cyrus as a model of divinely ordained kingship.
6.2 Gog and Magog: From Genesis to the Quran
- Noahic Origins: Genesis 10:2 identifies Magog as a descendant of Japheth, associated with Scythian tribes north of the Black Sea.
- Islamic Eschatology: Hadiths place Gog and Magog’s release as a sign of the Last Day, linking them to Cyrus’s northern adversaries.
7. Conclusion: Cyrus, the Bible, and the Legacy of Zulqarnain
7.1 Why Cyrus Fits the Quranic and Biblical Framework
- Chronological Alignment: The Bible’s Gog and Magog tradition emerged in the 6th century BCE, coinciding with Cyrus’s reign and his conflicts against northern tribes. Alexander, active in the 4th century BCE, is anachronistically detached from this context.
- Geopolitical Overlap: Cyrus’s campaigns in the Caucasus and Central Asia align with the “far north” origin of Gog and Magog in Ezekiel 38:15. The Quran’s barrier-builder, like Cyrus, is a defender against chaos, not a conqueror of cities.
- Theological Continuity: Jewish reverence for Cyrus, evident in Isaiah 45:1, underscores his role as a divinely guided ruler—a profile mirrored in Zulqarnain’s Quranic depiction.
7.2 Alexander’s Exclusion: A Matter of Chronology and Theology
The Bible’s pre-Alexander references to Gog and Magog dismantle the Hellenistic hero’s candidacy. The Quran’s narrative, rooted in older Near Eastern eschatology, cannot be reconciled with a 4th-century BCE conqueror whose legacy was mythologized centuries later in the Alexander Romance.
7.3 Unresolved Questions and Future Research
- Archaeology: Excavations at Persian-era sites like Derbent and Gorgan may yet reveal evidence of iron-copper fortifications.
- Textual Studies: Comparative analysis of Zoroastrian texts (e.g., the Shahnameh) could deepen our understanding of Cyrus’s Quranic resonance.
7.4 Final Reflection
Zulqarnain’s story transcends mere historicity, serving as a bridge between empires and faiths. While Alexander’s legend captivates the imagination, Cyrus the Great—the restorer of Jerusalem, the architect of tolerance, and the subduer of steppe nomads—emerges as the figure who truly embodies the Quran’s vision of a just and divinely guided ruler. The Bible’s Gog and Magog, firmly rooted in his era, seal the case for Cyrus as Zulqarnain.
References
1. Briant, Pierre. *From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire*. Eisenbrauns, 2002.
2. Van Donzel, Emeri, and Andrea Schmidt. *Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources*. Brill, 2010.
3. Ezekiel 38–39 (New International Version).
4. Genesis 10:2 (New International Version).
5. Quranic Exegesis (Tafsir) of Surah Al-Kahf.